Philosopher's Stone

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For other uses, see Philosopher's Stone (disambiguation).

The Alchymist, In Search of the Philosophers' Stone by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1771.

The philosophers' stone or stone of the philosophers (Latin: lapis philosophorum) is a legendary alchemical substance said to be capable of turning base metals such as lead into gold (chrysopoeia) or silver. It was also sometimes believed to be an elixir of life, useful for rejuvenation and possibly for achieving immortality. For many centuries, it was the most sought-after goal in alchemy. The philosophers' stone was the central symbol of the mystical terminology of alchemy, symbolizing perfection at its finest, enlightenment, and heavenly bliss. Efforts to discover the philosophers' stone were known as the Magnum Opus (“Great Work”).^[1]

Contents

 [hide] 

• 1 History
  • 1.1 Middle Ages
  • 1.2 Renaissance to Early Modern period
  • 1.3 In Buddhism and Hinduism
• 2 Properties
  • 2.1 Names
  • 2.2 Appearance
  • 2.3 Interpretations
• 3 Creation
• 4 Art and entertainment
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links

History[edit]

Mention of the philosophers' stone in writing can be found as far back as Cheirokmeta by Zosimos of Panopolis (c. 300 C.E.).^[2] Alchemical writers assign a longer history. Elias Ashmole and the anonymous author of Gloria Mundi (1620) claim that its history goes back to Adam who acquired the knowledge of the stone directly from God. This knowledge was said to be passed down through biblical patriarchs, giving them their longevity. The legend of the stone was also compared to the biblical history of the Temple of Solomon and the rejected cornerstone described in Psalm 118.^[3]
The theoretical roots outlining the stone’s creation can be traced to Greek philosophy. Alchemists later used the Classical elements, the concept of anima mundi, and Creation stories presented in texts like Plato’s Timaeus as analogies for their process.^[4] According to Plato, the four elements are derived from a common source or prima materia (first matter), associated with chaos. Prima materia is also the name alchemists assign to the starting ingredient for the creation of the philosopher’s stone. The importance of this philosophical first matter persisted through the history of alchemy. In the seventeenth century, Thomas Vaughan writes, “the first matter of the stone is the very same with the first matter of all things”.^[5]

Middle Ages[edit]

The 8th-century alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latinized as Geber) analyzed each classical element in terms of the four basic qualities. Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air hot and moist. He theorized that every metal was a combination of these four principles, two of them interior and two exterior. From this premise, it was reasoned that the transmutation of one metal into another could be affected by the rearrangement of its basic qualities. This change would presumably be mediated by a substance, which came to be called al-iksir in Arabic (from which the Western term elixir is derived). It is often considered to exist as a dry red powder (also known as al-Kibrit al-Ahmar الكبريت الأحمر—red sulphur) made from a legendary stone—the philosopher's stone.^[6][7] Jabir's theory was based on the concept that metals like gold and silver could be hidden in alloys and ores, from which they could be recovered by the appropriate chemical treatment. Jabir himself is believed to be the inventor of aqua regia, a mixture of muriatic (hydrochloric) and nitric acids, one of the few substances that can dissolve gold (and which is still often used for gold recovery and purification).^{[citation needed]}
In the 11th century, there was a debate among Muslim world chemists on whether the transmutation of substances was possible. A leading opponent was Avicenna (Ibn Sina), who discredited the theory of transmutation of substances, stating, "Those of the chemical craft know well that no change can be effected in the different species of substances, though they can produce the appearance of such change."^[8]
According to legend, the 13th-century scientist and philosopher Albertus Magnus is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it to his pupil, Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death circa 1280. Magnus does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation".^[9]

Renaissance to Early Modern period[edit]

The 16th-century Swiss alchemist Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) believed in the existence of alkahest, which he thought to be an undiscovered element from which all other elements (earth, fire, water, air) were simply derivative forms. Paracelsus believed that this element was, in fact, the philosopher's stone.
A mystical text published in the 17th century called the Mutus Liber appears to be a symbolic instruction manual for concocting a philosophers' stone. Called the "wordless book", it was a collection of 15 illustrations.

In Buddhism and Hinduism[edit]

Main article: Cintamani

The equivalent of the philosophers' stone in Buddhism and Hinduism is the Cintamani.^[10]
In Buddhism, Cintamani is held by the bodhisattvas, Avalokiteshvara and Ksitigarbha. It is also seen carried upon the back of the Lung ta (wind horse) which is depicted on Tibetan prayer flags. By reciting the Dharani of Cintamani, Buddhist tradition maintains that one attains the Wisdom of Buddhas, is able to understand the truth of the Buddhas, and turns afflictions into Bodhi. It is said to allow one to see the Holy Retinue of Amitabha and his assembly upon one's deathbed. In Tibetan Buddhist tradition the Chintamani is sometimes depicted as a luminous pearl and is in the possession of several of different forms of the Buddha.^[11]
Within Hinduism it is connected with the gods Vishnu and Ganesha. In Hindu tradition it is often depicted as a fabulous jewel in the possession of the Nāga king or as on the forehead of the Makara.^{[citation needed]} The Yoga Vasistha, originally written in the 10th century AD, contains a story about the philosopher's stone.^[12]
A great Hindu sage wrote about the spiritual accomplishment of Gnosis using the metaphor of the philosophers' stone. Saint Jnaneshwar (1275–1296), wrote a commentary with 17 references to the philosophers' stone that explicitly transmutes base metal into gold. The seventh century Indian sage Thirumoolar in his classic Tirumandhiram explains man's path to immortal divinity. In verse 2709 he declares that the name of God, Shiva or the god Shambala, is an alchemical vehicle that turns the body into immortal gold.

Properties[edit]

The philosophers' stone has been attributed with many mystical and magical properties. The most commonly mentioned properties are the ability to transmute base metals into gold or silver, and the ability to heal all forms of illness and prolong the life of any person who consumes a small part of the philosophers' stone.^[13] Other mentioned properties include: creation of perpetually burning lamps,^[13] transmutation of common crystals into precious stones and diamonds,^[13] reviving of dead plants,^[13] creation of flexible or malleable glass,^[14] or the creation of a clone or homunculus.^[15]

Names[edit]

Numerous synonyms were used to make oblique reference to the stone, such as "white stone" (calculus albus, identified with the calculus candidus of Revelation 2:17 which was taken as a symbol of the glory of heaven^[16]), vitriol (as expressed in the backronym Visita Interiora Terrae Rectificando Invenies Occultum Lapidem), also lapis noster, lapis occultus, in water at the box, and numerous oblique, mystical or mythological references such as Adam, Aer, Animal, Alkahest, Antidotus, Antimonium, Aqua benedicta, Aqua volans per aeram, Arcanum, Atramentum, Autumnus, Basilicus, Brutorum cor, Bufo, Capillus, Capistrum auri, Carbones, Cerberus, Chaos, Cinis cineris, Crocus, Dominus philosophorum, Divine quintessence, Draco elixir, Filius ignis, Fimus, Folium, Frater, Granum, Granum frumenti, Haematites, Hepar, Herba, Herbalis, Lac, Melancholia, Ovum philosophorum, Panacea salutifera, Pandora, Phoenix, Philosophic mercury, Pyrites, Radices arboris solares, Regina, Rex regum, Sal metallorum, Salvator terrenus, Talcum, Thesaurus, Ventus hermetis.^[17] Many of the medieval allegories for a Christ were adopted for the lapis, and the Christ and the Stone were indeed taken as identical in a mystical sense. The name of "Stone" or lapis itself is informed by early Christian allegory, such as Priscillian (4th century), who stated Unicornis est Deus, nobis petra Christus, nobis lapis angularis Jesus, nobis hominum homo Christus.^[18] In some texts it is simply called 'stone', or our stone, or in the case of Thomas Norton's Ordinal, "oure delycious stone".^[19] The stone was frequently praised and referred to in such terms.
It needs to be noted that philosophorum does not mean "of the philosopher" or "the philosopher's" in the sense of a single philosopher. It means "of the philosophers" in the sense of a plurality of philosophers.

Appearance[edit]

Philosopher's stone as pictured in Michael Maier's Atalanta Fugiens Emblem 21

Descriptions of the Philosophers' Stone are numerous and various.^[20] According to alchemical texts, the stone of the philosophers came in two varieties, prepared by an almost identical method: white (for the purpose of making silver), and red (for the purpose of making gold), the white stone being a less matured version of the red stone.^[21] Some ancient and medieval alchemical texts leave clues to the supposed physical appearance of the stone of the philosophers, specifically the red stone. It is often said to be orange (saffron colored) or red when ground to powder. Or in a solid form, an intermediate between red and purple, transparent and glass-like.^[22] The weight is spoken of as being heavier than gold,^[23] and it is said to be soluble in any liquid, yet incombustible in fire.^[24]
Alchemical authors sometimes suggest that the stone's descriptors are metaphorical. It is called a stone, not because it is like a stone.^[25] The appearance is expressed geometrically in Michael Maier's Atalanta Fugiens. "Make of a man and woman a circle; then a quadrangle; out of the this a triangle; make again a circle, and you will have the Stone of the Wise. Thus is made the stone, which thou canst not discover, unless you, through diligence, learn to understand this geometrical teaching."^[26] Rupescissa uses the imagery of the Christian passion, telling us it ascends "from the sepulcher of the Most Excellent King, shining and glorious, resuscitated from the dead and wearing a red diadem...".^[27]

Interpretations[edit]

The various names and attributes assigned to the philosophers' stone has led to long-standing speculation on its composition and source. Exoteric candidates have been found in metals, plants, rocks, chemical compounds, and bodily products such as hair, urine, and eggs. Justus von Liebig states that 'it was indispensable that every substance accessible... should be observed and examined'.^[28] Alchemists once thought a key component in the creation of the stone was a mythical element named carmot.^[29][30]
Esoteric hermetic alchemists may reject work on exoteric substances, instead directing their search for the philosophers' stone inward.^[31] Though esoteric and exoteric approaches are sometimes mixed, it is clear that some authors "are not concerned with material substances but are employing the language of exoteric alchemy for the sole purpose of expressing theological, philosophical, or mystical beliefs and aspirations."^[32] New interpretations continue to be developed around spagyric, chemical, and esoteric schools of thought.

Creation[edit]

Main article: Magnum opus (alchemy)

The philosophers' stone is created by the alchemical method Mass sacfrifice. In order for one to obtain the stone one must sacrifice the lives of many many people, and at one time an entire civilization vanished in one night due to this process.

Art and entertainment[edit]

Main article: Alchemy in art and entertainment

The philosophers' stone has been a subject, inspiration, or plot feature of innumerable artistic works: novels, comics, movies, animations, video games, and musical compositions.

See also[edit]

• Alchemy
• Azoth
• Biological transmutation
• Cupellation
• Elixir of Life
• Filius philosophorum
• Midas
• Nicolas Flamel
• Nuclear transmutation
• Panacea (medicine)
• The Net (substance)

References[edit]

1. Jump up ^ Heindel, Max, Freemasonry and Catholicism, ISBN 0-911274-04-9
2. Jump up ^ Andrew Ede, Lesley B. Cormack. A History of Science in Society: from philosophy to utility. University of Toronto Press. p .66
3. Jump up ^ Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book Princeton University Press, 1995. p.19
4. Jump up ^ Stanton J. Linden. The alchemy reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton Cambridge University Press. 2003. p. 29.
5. Jump up ^ Mark Haeffner. Dictionary of Alchemy: From Maria Prophetessa to Isaac Newton. Karnac Books, 2004. p.211
6. Jump up ^ Ragai, Jehane (1992), "The Philosopher's Stone: Alchemy and Chemistry", Journal of Comparative Poetics 12 (Metaphor and Allegory in the Middle Ages): 58–77 
7. Jump up ^ Holmyard, E. J. (1924), "Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim", Isis 6 (3): 293–305 
8. Jump up ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196-197.
9. Jump up ^ Julian Franklyn ans Frederick E. Budd. A Survey of the Occult. Electric Book Company. 2001. p. 28-30. ISBN 1-84327-087-0.
10. Jump up ^ Guénon, René (2004) (1962). Symbols of Sacred Science. Sophia Perennis, USA. ISBN 0-900588-78-0. pp. 277.
11. Jump up ^ R. A. Donkin, Beyond price: pearls and pearl-fishing : origins to the Age of Discoveries, p.170 [1]
12. Jump up ^ Venkatesananda, Swami (1984). The Concise Yoga Vasistha. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 346–353. ISBN 0-87395-955-8. OCLC 11044869. 
13. ^ Jump up to: ^{a b c d} Theophrastus Paracelsus. The Book of the Revelation of Hermes. 16th century
14. Jump up ^ An Unknown German Sage. A Very Brief Tract Concerning the Philosophical Stone. (unknown date, possibly 16th Century)
15. Jump up ^ Theophrastus Paracelsus. Of the Nature of Things. 16th century
16. Jump up ^ Salomon Glass, Johann Gottfried Olearius, Philologia sacra: qua totius Vet. et Novi Testamenti Scripturae tum stylus et litteratura, tum sensus et genuinae interpretationis ratio et doctrina libris V expenditur ac traditur ^, imp. J. Fred. Gleditschius (1743)
17. Jump up ^ listed e.g. in W. Schneider, Lexikon alchemistisch-pharmazeutischer Symbole, Weinheim 1962.
18. Jump up ^ Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum t. XVIII, p. 24, cited by C. G. Jung in Roots of Consciousness.
19. Jump up ^ Line 744 in Thomas Norton's The Ordinal of Alchemy by John Rediry. The Early English Text Society no. 272.
20. Jump up ^ John Read "From Alchemy to Chemistry" p.29
21. Jump up ^ A German Sage. A Tract of Great Price Concerning the Philosophical Stone. 1423.
22. Jump up ^ John Frederick Helvetius. Golden Calf. 17th Century.
23. Jump up ^ Anonymous. On the Philosophers' Stone. (unknown date, possibly 16th century)
24. Jump up ^ Eirenaeus Philalethes. A Brief Guide to the Celestial Ruby. 1694 CE
25. Jump up ^ Charles John Samuel Thompson. Alchemy and Alchemists. p.70
26. Jump up ^ J.B. Craven. "Count Michael Maier". p.90
27. Jump up ^ Leah DeVun. "Prophecy, alchemy, and the end of time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages." Columbia University Press, 2009. p.118
28. Jump up ^ John Read. From Alchemy to Chemistry London: G. Bell. 1957. p. 29.
29. Jump up ^ Burt, A.L. 1885. The National Standard Encyclopedia: A Dictionary of Literature, the Sciences and the Arts, for Popular Use p. 150. Available online.
30. Jump up ^ Sebastian, Anton. 1999. A Dictionary of the History of Medicine. p. 179. ISBN 1-85070-021-4. Available online.
31. Jump up ^ Stanton J. Linden. The alchemy reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton Cambridge University Press. 2003. p. 16.
32. Jump up ^ Eric John Holmyard. Alchemy" Courier Dover Publications, 1990. p. 16.

Further reading[edit]

• Encyclopædia Britannica (2011). Philosophers' stone and Alchemy.
• Guiley, Rosemary (2006). The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy. Infobase Publishing, USA. ISBN 0-8160-6048-7. pp. 250–252.
• Myers, Richard (2003). The basics of chemistry. Greenwood Publishing Group, USA. ISBN 0-313-31664-3. pp. 11–12.
• Pagel, Walter (1982). Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance. Karger Publishers, Switzerland. ISBN 3-8055-3518-X.
• Thompson, Charles John Samuel (2002) [1932]. Alchemy and Alchemists. Chapter IX. Courier Dover Publications, USA. ISBN 0-486-42110-4. pp. 68–76.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philosopher's stone.

• The Philosophers' Stone by Edward Kelly

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Evolutionary Influences: A Brief History of Evolutionary Spirituality

Date:

May 17, 2013

By: Joel Pitney   Enlightenment



   

Evolution has become a defining perspective in our day and age as we start to look at more and more dimensions of our lives, from our  biological and cosmological origins to the development of our psychological interiors, through the same lens that Darwin first peered through in the mid-nineteenth century. The defining characteristic of the perspective we're exploring on this blog is how evolution is shaping the development not only of our exterior world of matter and technology, but of our interior world of spirituality, culture, morals, and our understanding of who we are and how we should live. There's quite a rich history of influential figures, from the present and the past, who have and continue to reshape the way we see our world through the prism of evolution, and so we're launching a new initiative on this blog to profile a different figure every other week and highlight their contribution to this emerging worldview. 

To kick things off, we're featuring an article from EnlightenNext magazine's 2007 issue, "The Mystery of Evolution," by Tom Huston that takes us through the story of how spiritually inspired evolutionary thinking emerged over thepast 400 years. Huston surveys the work of 29 luminaries citing their specific contribution to the development of evolutionary spirituality. We hyperlinked each of their names... because we know you'll want to find out more!

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A Brief History of Evolutionary Spiritualityby Tom Huston

“Has creation a final goal? And if so, why was it not reached at once? Why was the consummation not realized from the beginning? To these questions there is but one answer: Because God is Life, and not merely Being.”

F.W.J. Schelling, 1809

Charles Darwin did not invent the concept of evolution. In fact, he himself acknowledged that the idea, however loosely defined, had a history dating back to Aristotle. And despite the general impression offered by most scientists today, it wasn’t always a materialistic notion either. In its modern incarnation, the concept of evolution can be traced directly to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who viewed the evolutionary process as an act of God.

A renowned German philosopher, scientist, lawyer, linguist, mathematician, and inventor of both calculus (independent of Newton) and the binary system (the basis of computer technology), Leibniz was a man ahead of his time. Writing on “The Ultimate Origin of Things” in the year 1697—six years after speculating in his Protogaea that over the vast course of the earth’s history “even the species of animals have many times been transformed”—he stated that “a cumulative increase of the beauty and universal perfection of the works of God, a perpetual and unrestricted progress of the universe as a whole must be recognized, such that it advances to a higher state of development.” Although the idea that God’s creation was evolving in a ceaseless ascent toward perfection had already been profoundly intuited over seventy years earlier by the German mystic Jakob Böhme, it was Leibniz who first placed it in a scientific context. And to him, clearly, it was still a novel concept. “I flatter myself that I have some ideas of these truths,” he wrote to a friend in 1707, “but this age is not prepared to receive them.”
Over the next few decades, an increasing number of Europe’s brightest minds began to finally catch Leibniz’s evolutionary drift. Among those illumined ranks were names such as Diderot, Maupertuis, Buffon, and Voltaire, who all wrote about the topic of evolution but, like any self-respecting champions of the Age of Enlightenment, rarely felt compelled to inject divinity into their more scientific speculations. Indeed, by upholding the liberating power of rationality to subvert the ancient myths and dogma of the Church, many of them actively sought to draw a firm line between science and spirituality, reason and religion, bringing to sharper contrast the divide that began with Galileo’s confrontation with the religious authorities two centuries earlier. In this context, through much of the eighteenth century, the many musings about the idea of evolution frequently took on a strictly naturalistic or materialistic tone.
It was only around 1799, ten years after the storming of the Bastille, which ignited the French Revolution and cemented the success of the rational Enlightenment in the chronicles of the Western mind, that these varied intimations of evolution finally congealed into a cohesive new model of reality. Arising, once again, from the fertile depths of the German zeitgeist, it was a cosmological and metaphysical paradigm that seamlessly united science and spirituality—an evolutionary vision that stretched from the simplest atoms of the distant past to a sacred future in which human society would perfectly reflect the transcendent unity of the Divine.

Of Romantics and Idealists

On any given evening during the fall and winter of 1799, in the pastoral college town of Jena, Germany, at least one candlelit home could likely be found abuzz with the excited voices of some remarkable men and women. Meeting over fine food and wine in the home of local literary critic Wilhelm Schlegel and his brilliant wife, Caroline, an eclectic band of young artists, intellectuals, and self-styled scientists would “symphilosophize” and “sympoetize” late into the night, absorbed in a seemingly endless swirl of radically unconventional ideas. They called themselves “Romantics”: revolutionaries of the human spirit determined to infuse the Enlightenment’s increasing trend toward dry materialism with some much-needed passion and poetry. Troubled by the rational mind’s tendency to brusquely reduce the full grandeur and beauty of life to stale scientific abstraction—dissecting nature “atomistically like a dead corpse,” in the words of one of their early proponents—they strove to steer Western society in a more holistic, spiritual direction. And perhaps no individual better fulfilled that dream than the youngest member of Jena’s Romantic inner circle—the charming twenty-four-year-old wunderkind and idealist philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling.
“He has invited me to an exchange of correspondence,” wrote the poet Novalis to a fellow Romantic upon meeting Schelling. “Before the day is out I will write him. I like him a lot—a real universal tendency in him—true radiant force—from one point to infinity.” Similar praise could be heard from nearly all who met the philosophical prodigy, including the famed poet and scientist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. First encountering Schelling in 1798, he was immediately impressed and soon took the young man under his influential wing. For in the unique space of Schelling’s Romantic but thoroughly rational mind—molded as it was by the works of both Böhme and Leibniz—a striking reunification between science and spirit was beginning to take shape.

Expanding on a century’s worth of evolutionary thinking and the idealist philosophy of J.G. Fichte (who’d been a student of Immanuel Kant), Schelling proposed an alternative to the encroaching materialism so dreaded by his Romantic friends: an evolutionary idealism. As the opposite of materialism, the philosophy of idealism held that consciousness, not matter, was the ultimate basis of reality. And once combined with a scientific understanding of evolution, Schelling realized, idealism would represent a force with which all serious thinkers of the Enlightenment would have to contend.
Envisioning an epic process of cosmic evolution in which an unmanifest realm of pure consciousness, or absolute spirit, is actively manifesting itself as the world of time and space through a series of increasingly complex and conscious forms—from matter to life to mind and beyond—Schelling wrote:

It is the universal spirit of nature that gradually structures raw matter. From bits of moss,
in which hardly any trace of organization is visible, to the most noble form, which seems
to have broken the chains of matter, one and the same drive governs. This drive operates
according to one and the same ideal of purposiveness and presses forward into infinity
to express one and the same archetype, namely, the pure form of our consciousness.

Thus, more than sixty years before Darwin brought the scientific world to its knees with his theory of biological evolution by means of natural selection and “random variation,” Friedrich Schelling and some of his closest friends (including his newfound mentor Goethe and his former schoolmate, philosopher Georg Hegel) were already claiming that reality as a whole was going somewhere. Nature—and humanity—had a purpose and direction, aligned with a purely spiritual drive, and the striking implications of this idea for humanity’s most basic conceptions of life and God did not pass these men by. In the spring of 1800, perhaps after a typical night of creative discussion among the members of the Romantic circle, Schelling pulled out his latest manuscript-in-progress, System of Transcendental Idealism, and inscribed a simple summation of his budding evolutionary thesis: “History as a whole,” he concluded, “is a progressive, gradually self-disclosing revelation of the Absolute.”
It was the clearest formulation yet of a vision—an evolutionary spirituality—that would rock the foundations of philosophy and mysticism for centuries to come.
From East to West to Omega
With the groundbreaking synthesis of the German idealists Schelling and Hegel, no longer did humanity need to be seen as being adrift in a state of sin and suffering, as the Church claimed, having “fallen” away from the presence of God in the primordial past. Nor did God have to remain merely a mythic remnant of a more ignorant age, as many scientists continued to insist. Instead, the reality of the Divine could now be understood to reside most fully in our collective future—to be revealed in the world, with increasing depth and clarity, as history marched forward and consciousness evolved. “God does not remain petrified and dead,” said Hegel. “The very stones cry out and raise themselves to Spirit.”
Echoing that sentiment almost two centuries later, the American integral philosopher Ken Wilber wrote, “Both humans and rocks are equally Spirit, but only humans can consciously realize that fact, and between the rock and the human lies evolution.” And in the span between Hegel and Wilber reigned numerous proponents of evolutionary spirituality in both the East and the West. From the American essayist and lecturer Ralph Waldo Emerson to the Indian scholar and statesman Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, from the Austrian anthroposophical visionary Rudolph Steiner to the English philosopher Alfred North Whitehead, the growing number of spiritual evolutionists spanned a variety of backgrounds and disciplines, but the developmental vision that compelled them was essentially one and the same.
And perhaps no thinkers of the twentieth century took this dawning teleological perspective further and deeper than the Indian philosopher-sage Sri Aurobindo, the French philosopher and author Henri Bergson, and the French paleontologist and Jesuit priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.
Writing in the early 1900s, Sri Aurobindo introduced a novel dimension to the field, namely, combining the modern understanding of evolution with the traditional revelation of mystical enlightenment. After completing his studies at Cambridge in 1892, where he immersed himself in the works of the German idealists, he became a leading figure in the Indian independence movement, at one point being declared “the most dangerous man alive” by the British Empire. But he eventually left the freedom fight to devote his life to exploring liberation of an altogether different kind. After he experienced a profound spiritual awakening through the aid of an Indian yogi, Aurobindo’s consciousness opened onto a vision of human possibilities that saw the attainment of nirvana—typically held to be the goal of all spiritual pursuits—as merely the foundation for a conscious engagement with the evolutionary impulse. Leading his spiritual community in the practice of “integral yoga,” Aurobindo brought evolutionary spirituality out of the realm of abstract theory and transformed it into a practical methodology for aligning one’s life with the direction and purpose of the universe as a whole.
Around the same time that Aurobindo, in the East, was setting young Indian souls on fire with the promise of leading lives of evolutionary significance, Bergson and Teilhard, in the West, were busy attempting to salvage the basic concept of evolution from the still-growing dominion of Darwinian materialism. By explicitly interpreting the growing scientific evidence for biological evolution in a context of cosmic spirituality, they bravely attempted—much like the idealists of a century earlier—to creatively merge two increasingly distinct (and even alienated) domains.
Published in 1907, Bergson’s Creative Evolution, for instance, was widely denounced by philosophical realists such as Bertrand Russell for blurring the lines between physics and metaphysics and thereby leading to alleged scientific errors. But it nevertheless became a popular bestseller among the public at large for its compelling consideration of the “motive principle” behind evolution, which Bergson identified as consciousness itself. And although his writings had relatively limited influence on the mainstream intelligentsia at the time of their publication—only receiving a full appreciation in later years, including the award of a Nobel Prize—they arrived at a critical moment to help bring coherence to the confusing array of evolutionary ideas that were presently consuming another French thinker, the young priest called Father Teilhard de Chardin.
Like Creative Evolution before it, Teilhard’s masterwork, The Human Phenomenon, based its evolutionary speculations on widely accepted scientific knowledge, but it took an unusual turn by remaining strictly rooted in the theological wisdom afforded him by his deep Christian faith. Although his theories regarding the future cosmic evolution of consciousness didn’t win him many converts in the Catholic Church (which officially condemned his writings and prohibited him from publishing anything while alive), he has left a lasting impression on the hearts and minds of numerous evolutionary thinkers who have followed in his wake. In particular, many theorists have found immense value in Teilhard’s focus on the back-and-forth interplay of individuality and collectivity over the course of cosmic history. Teilhard envisioned the possibility that human beings, like molecules and bacteria before them, may one day come together in a higher integration, or “mega-synthesis,” of spiritual unification and collective consciousness—uniting in a kind of “thinking envelope” surrounding the earth. He dubbed this the “noosphere,” a psychic field of shared intelligence that was already beginning to slowly encompass the planet, transcending and including the geosphere (of insentient matter) and the biosphere (of life). And Teilhard foresaw the fulfillment of all evolution, both cosmic and human, in an ultimate convergence of matter and consciousness that he called the “Omega Point”—a concept that has also inspired many futurists and science fiction writers over the last fifty years.
Shortly before his death in 1955, Teilhard made the following reflection on his life and work, proving that despite the intense ideological adversity he encountered, his faith in the ever-ascending evolutionary power of divinity remained unshaken to the end:

When all is said and done, I can see this: I managed to climb to the point where the Universebecame apparent to me as a great rising surge, in which all the work that goes into serious
inquiry, all the will to create, all the acceptance of suffering, converge ahead into a single
dazzling spearhead—now, at the end of my life, I can stand on the peak I have scaled and
continue to look ever more closely into the future, and there, with ever more assurance,
see the ascent of God.

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the notion that the evolutionary process is ultimately driven by a spiritual impulse is continuing to gain traction, with a growing number of progressive philosophers, scientists, and mystics exploring its implications. To many, it is simply a compelling philosophy, uniting the revelations of science and spirituality in a way that no other theory can. But others, like Aurobindo before them, are beginning to reach beyond a theoretical discussion to wonder: What might human life and culture look like if we fully took to heart the reality of this view? Freed from the mythic dogmatisms of premodern religion, transcending the materialistic biases of modern scientific thought, and liberated from the narcissistic self-absorptions of postmodernity, what kind of new world could human beings aligned with the trajectory of a spiritually evolving cosmos actually create?
The future, as always, remains unknown. But as Hegel assured us so long ago: “We could, indeed, embrace the whole in the single principle of development; if this were clear, all else would result and follow of its own accord.”

TIMELINE of EVOLUTIONARY SPIRITUALITY

Meet the pioneers of modern spirituality’s most provocative idea

1600s

Jakob Böhme (1575–1624)
German shoemaker and mystic
The modern concept of evolutionary spirituality begins with Böhme, whose mystical insights revealed to him that God is striving to develop a world of increasing wholeness and perfection.
G.W. Leibniz (1646–1716)
German polymath
Picking up where Böhme left off, Leibniz’s scientific and theological genius produced the first broad conceptions of an evolution of biological species, which he saw as a process ordained by God.

1700s

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
German philosopher
A student of the works of Leibniz, Kant explored the idea that God’s physical laws are working to fashion the material world “by a natural evolution into a more perfect constitution.”
J.B. Robinet (1735–1820)
French philosopher
Ultimately derided for his belief in mermaids, Robinet was among the first to explore the idea that evolution is driven by a spiritual energy or “force.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)
German polymath
Embracing evolution as a spiritual process, Goethe’s theory of the development of plant morphology inspired both philosopher Friedrich Schelling and naturalist Charles Darwin.
J.G. Fichte (1762–1814)
German philosopher
A student and reinterpreter of Kant, Fichte proposed that both subjective mind and objective nature are the evolving ephemeral expressions of a transcendent consciousness.
 1800s

F.W.J. Schelling (1775–1854)
German philosopher
Schelling, a student of Fichte, fused the mysticism of Böhme and the logic of Leibniz into an unprecedented vision of cosmic evolution that saw God fully pervading all levels of being.
G.W.F. Hegel (1770–1831)
German philosopher
Schelling’s erstwhile friend and professional rival achieved widespread acclaim for his in-depth treatises on Spirit as the guiding power behind humanity’s cultural development.
Lorenz Oken (1779–1851)
German naturalist
A student of Schelling, Oken’s scientific theories expanded on his mentor’s philosophy, proposing a mystical impulse behind the evolutionary transformations of living species.
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)
German philosopher
Another of Hegel’s rivals, he combined Eastern mysticism and Kantian idealism into a philosophy that made the evolutionary impulse, or “will to live,” a fundamental tenet of existence.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882)
American essayist
Profoundly influenced by German idealism, Emerson’s transcendentalism synthesized the Eastern notion of karma with the Western concept of evolution.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)
English naturalist
Wallace famously developed his own theory of natural selection contemporaneously with Darwin, but he held that evolution also had a spiritual dimension.
Helena Blavatsky (1831-1891)
Ukrainian Theosophist
Founder of the Theosophical Society, she was largely responsible for the resurgence of occult thought and the popularization of an esoteric form of evolutionary spirituality in the late nineteenth century.

1900s

Richard M. Bucke (1837–1902)
Canadian psychiatrist
Following an experience of “cosmic consciousness,” Bucke composed a comprehensive chronicle of the evolutionary history and future potential of the human psyche. 
William James (1842–1910) 
American psychologist
One of modernity’s foremost authorities on mystical experience, James applied an evolutionary perspective to the study of psychology and the development of consciousness.
Henri Bergson (1859–1941) 
French philosopher
Bergson’s concept of the élan vital, or a “vital force,” behind the evolutionary process fueled his masterful writings, for which he earned the 1927 Nobel Prize in literature.
Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925)
Austrian polymath
Esotericism gained new notoriety through the work of Steiner, who wrote about the spiritual evolution of humankind from an occult and astrological perspective.
Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947)
English mathematician and philosopher
Whitehead’s influential “process philosophy” essentially redefined God as a process inseparable from the evolution of the material universe.
Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902)
Indian mystic
Having introduced Hindu mysticism to the West, he found no incompatibility between Eastern concepts of spiritual growth and Darwin’s evolutionary theory.

Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950) 
Indian mystic-philosopher
This enlightened thinker created a comprehensive synthesis of Eastern and Western philosophies and redefined spiritual practice as a conscious engagement with evolution itself.
The Mother (1878–1973)
French mystic
An esoteric evolutionist and spiritual partner of Sri Aurobindo, she saw evolution leading to a fundamental cellular transformation that would give rise to a new human species.
Alice Bailey (1880–1949)
English Neo-Theosophist
Expanding on the ideas of Blavatsky, Steiner, and other occult thinkers, Bailey’s writings laid the foundation for many New Age notions of spiritual evolution.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955) 
French priest and paleontologist
Influential beyond his lifetime, Teilhard challenged rigid dogmatisms in both mainstream science and Christianity with his inspired vision of the evolutionary destiny of human consciousness.
Julian Huxley (1887–1975)
English biologist
Member of the distinguished Huxley family, he popularized the idea that humanity is the first known species in which the evolving universe has become self-aware.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975)
Indian president
This statesman and scholar promoted the philosophy of German idealism alongside Eastern mysticism as he advocated an evolutionary vision for humanity.
Gerald Heard (1889–1971)
English historian
Heard’s studies on how individual consciousness evolves through focused intention led him to postulate the emergence of “leptoid man,” or human beings who have “leapt” to a higher state of being.
Dane Rudhyar (1895-1985)
French astrologer
Master of many disciplines, including music and astrology, Rudhyar saw evolution leading to a global awakening, which he outlined in his 1970 book The Planetarization of Consciousness.
Jean Gebser (1905–1973)
German cultural theorist
An influential forefather of contemporary “integral” theories of development, Gebser’s pioneering work focused on the evolution of human society, which he traced through five distinct stages of consciousness.
Arthur M. Young (1905–1995)
American inventor and philosopher
After developing the first commercial helicopter, Young’s innovative mind lifted off into the realm of cosmology and metaphysics to devise a new evolutionary theory of consciousness.

2000s
With many contemporary thinkers contributing important new insights to this ever-changing field, the history of evolutionary spirituality is still being written...





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