Ayahuasca and the Vines of Politics

Posted by Rev. Nemu ⋅ February 8, 2011⋅

Filed Under ayahuasca, drugs, law, politics, santo daime

Ref  The Psychedelic Press

 

 

Salvation by drfranken

The following article has been written and contributed to PsypressUK by the Reverend Nemu, author of Nemu’s End: The History, Psychology, and Poetry of the Apocalypse and the Nemu’s End blog, with special thanks to the other Devilish Dan. We’d like to extend our thanks to the Reverend for his time and effort writing this article.
After bubbling and brewing away for millennia in the Amazon, ayahuasca began seeping out through the foliage at the turn of the 20th century. This powerful visionary tea was adopted by rubber tapper communities in what is now the Brazil-Bolivia-Peru borderland, and various sects emerged, including Santo Daime. A syncretic mix of Catholicism, Spiritualism, and indigenous shamanism, it spread to the rest of Brazil in the 80s, and today there are groups dotted around Latin American, Europe, and the US, as well as in Japan, India, Israel, and other places[i]. This article focuses on the legal history of Santo Daime (SD), of which I am a member, though other lineages also have international profiles, the most widespread being the União de Vegetal (UDV).
Ayahuasca contains N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), which is internationally scheduled under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. DMT-containing plants, however, are specifically exempted, and “preparations of these plants, including ayahuasca… are not subject to the articles of the 1971 Convention”[ii]. Despite occasional arrests in mainland Europe and the US, that position generally held, and SD groups operated discreetly and unmolested in the British Isles since the mid-1990s. In August 2009, however, customs officers in England and across Europe began seizing ayahuasca and its raw ingredients at borders, and also material used to make pure DMT.
Media interest in the UK began in 1996. A journalist from The Independent reported how, after several glasses in a community in the Amazon, he was confronted with a question posed introspectively: “Why are you here?” Writing a story was not good enough, and the answer remained elusive, but the journalist did briefly experience life as a tree [iii]. Though respectful and even-handed, the article contained a few errors, such as the assumption that the Church proselytizes. (In fact, new recruits must approach the Daime from their own volition, and even extending an invitation is strictly taboo.)
The press tended to follow this format, beginning with confusion, nausea, or occasionally terror, and concluding with a degree of respect for the “gentle, kind and thoughtful” [iv] members of the community, or asking “why shouldn’t they do what they do?” [v]. The exception was a report from Rio Branco, where the correspondent visited a brothel the first night and a Daime session the second. “My Daime was not working,” he complained, “so I went outside and swigged another cup”[vi]. He lost control of his legs and jaw almost immediately, before forgetting who he was or whether he was a man or a woman. He went to bed unharmed but none the wiser (and with the lights on.)
This was the only really negative account of ayahuasca until after the seizures, when The Sun ran “Mind-busting Jungle Drug Hits UK”, claiming that purified DMT was set to “become a bigger menace than crystal meth” [vii]. The sacrament exists in legal limbo until the legal questions are resolved, and English Daimistas have substituted water for ayahuasca in sessions. We continue to approach the divine with prayer, candles, reverence, and even sick buckets, and the current remains strong, but not so strong that we forget our genders.
Attempts to control ayahuasca date back to the colonial period, when missionaries judged it to be as demonic as the rest of indigenous culture, but the first modern confrontation took place in the 1930s. Raimundo Irineu Serra (hereafter and forever after referred to as “Mestre”) originally brought ayahuasca out of the Peruvian Amazon and into a Brazilian Christian context, where he named it Daime[viii]. Inevitably, it aroused suspicion. Mestre was a devout Christian before encountering ayahuasca, but he was also very tall and very black in a very short, very traditional and conservative part of Brazil. Accusations of demonic practices were soon heard. The compound which had grown up around his house was surrounded by soldiers with orders to shut it down or destroy it, under a lieutenant renowned for his severity [ix].

The Daimistas resisted and Mestre was arrested, but he made a good impression during interrogations, and made a friend of Governor Santos, who protected the group from then on, and secured land in Rio Branco for Alto Santo, the first Daime church, in the district still named Irineu Serra in his honour [x]. Mestre became a corporal in the police force, and stories are still told of this impeccable seven foot giant laying out wife-beaters and knife wielding drunkards with deft swings of his belt [xi].
Ayahuasca quickly became part of the cultural landscape in Rio Branco, and in 1965 the Secretary of Health and Social Services of Acre declared that there were no objections to its ritual use [xii]. In the 1980s, however, as it spread to other states, the government scheduled the ayahuasca vine Banisteriopsis caapi. It soon became clear that this was a breach of protocol, and the Division of Medications of the Ministry of Health and the Federal Council on Narcotics appointed doctors and professors to conduct a battery of tests on its “sociological, anthropological, chemical, medical and general health aspects”. In a series of visits to several communities, the commission braved stingray-infested jungle streams, and attended rituals as described in point fifteen of their report:

“The liquid is brownish, with an extremely acrid, repulsive and nauseating taste which, in both our cases, provoked serious nausea and vomiting. In my case (that of the author of this report), it also caused serious diarrhoea.”

The report was extensive and scientific, with the erudition of the panel shining through with quotes from St. Thomas Aquinas and Lévi-Strauss. No evidence of social harm was uncovered in the entire history of the three sects studied, and all were judged to be legitimate expressions of religion. The report warned against thoughtless use of the pejorative term “hallucination”, noting that the ritual is of paramount importance, and that great care is taken to ensure that ayahuasca is only consumed in ritual [xiii]. The ban was suspended in February 1986, with the panel recommending further tests. Diarrhoea notwithstanding, they found plenty of good things to say about ayahuasca religions:

“The ritual use of the tea does not appear to be disruptive or to have adverse effects upon the social interactions of the various sects’ followers. On the contrary, it appears to orient them towards seeking social contentment in an orderly and productive manner.”
“Moral and ethical standards of behaviour, similar in every respect to those which exist and are recommended in our society, are observed within the various sects, at times in an even stricter manner. Respect for the law always appeared to be emphasized.”

With reference to this last point, the Brazilian authorities behaved respectfully and their subjects reciprocated. In the US, whilst district police rarely intervened and the brew passed customs inspections for many years, federal agents entered the fray quite differently, armed with attack rifles. In May 1999, they entered the house of church elder Jonathan Goldman whilst he was out and questioned his children. When he arrived home he was handcuffed, and then taken to jail for twelve hours. He was released without charge, but with a warning not to conduct ceremonies [xiv].
Mr. Goldman’s petitions to the Justice Department over the next nine years went unanswered, so he sued. The US constitution protects religious freedoms, and in 2002, the UDV had successfully sued the Food and Drug Administration for unlawfully seizing their sacrament. The injunction was upheld in the Supreme Court in 2006 [xv], but the ruling pertained only to the UDV, and ayahuasca remained a controlled substance subject to strict protocols.
In the Goldman case, the federal agents submitted an affidavit explaining how he had discovered 400 gallons (i.e. five cubic feet) of Daime in eighteen plastic jugs, and carried said amount (i.e. 1.7 tons) to his pick-up truck. Whilst wondrous tales and miracle cures are not uncommon around ayahuasca, and in my own case it cured an “untreatable” and potentially fatal leishmaniasis infection, this agent’s superhuman strength and vessels defying the laws of physics are the most outlandish claims I know of.

Demeter by drfranken

The judge would not be swayed and ruled that SD was protected under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act [xvi]. The defence was permanently “enjoined from applying or enforcing any of the laws, regulations, and treaties that govern the legal importation and distribution of Schedule I substances for the purpose of prohibiting, preventing, unduly delaying, or otherwise interfering with Plaintiffs religious use of Daime”. More recently, in October 2010, a Colombian shaman was arrested at George Bush International Airport in Texas, charged with possession of ayahuasca. He was held for one month, but eventually released amidst an internet outcry.
The European Convention on Human Rights upholds “the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion” [xvii] and European courts have generally protected SD. Dutch district courts ruled in 2001 that it could be freely practised [xviii] and in 2009 a Dutchman was acquitted after being arrested with ayahuasca at the airport [xix].
Two Spanish arrests lead to no convictions in 2003, after a Brazilian Catholic Bishop protested that it “would seriously violate religious freedom and the God given human dignity of those people who wish to practice this Christian religion for any government to arrest Church members” [xx]. After a series of arrests in Italy in 2005, the case collapsed when the brew was found to contain only 0.064% DMT, less than a tenth of the amount in dry chacruna leaves (used to make it) [xxi]. Accordingly, the judge did not consider the preparation of Daime a process of concentration. A similar ruling was made in France the same year for the same reason [xxii], but four months later the ingredients and any preparation of them were scheduled. France remains the only European country to criminalise Daime.
Canadian customs seized some tea in 2000. Whilst Daimistas have praised the authorities for handling the matter respectfully, and the authorities have approved “in principle” that SD be exempt from restriction, the export law is still under review on the Brazilian side [xxiii]. Tax issues aside, years of exhaustive test-tube shaking and subject-probing at the behest of the original Brazilian panel bore fruit. A 2002 statute fully endorsed the ayahuasca religions of Brazil, formally recognising their cultural and spiritual value [xxiv].

The final development in the Brazilian story is that the Minister of Culture petitioned the government last year, asking that ayahuasca be recognised as cultural patrimony, alongside certain colonial buildings, Afro-Brazilian religions, a form of samba, and a style of pottery (this latter had immediate practical implications, because the water supply used to make it was under threat from logging interests.) Official recognition of diverse forms of cultural expression indicates a commitment to the protection of Brazilian culture in the face of rapid industrialisation and social change [xxv].
Whilst that petition is still under review, the Peruvian government awarded ayahuasca the status of cultural patrimony in 2008:

“That plant is known in the indigenous Amazon world as a sage or teacher plant, showing initiates the very fundaments of the world and its components. The effects of its consumption constitute the gateway to the spiritual world and its secrets… [It is] indispensable to those who assume the role of privileged carriers of these cultures” [xxvi]

This wording would be unthinkable in the context of European legislation. Whilst it may be tempting to conclude that Latin countries are still governed by superstition, the facts suggest otherwise. In Brazil, despite a vibrant religious culture and a vast array of sects and shamans, mediums, healers and exorcists, the government commissioned experts from every relevant science to study ayahuasca, as practiced by its citizens. The legislature followed the advice of the experts, as is proper in any democratically functioning society based on reason, and ayahuasca took its place as a respected and protected component in the Brazilian cultural milieu. But can the political machine in Britain live up to its own native-born ideals of rationalism, humanism, and science?
In 2009, Professor David Nutt, the head of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD), announced his panel’s findings, that the evidence did not support the government’s decision to reclassify cannabis [xxvii]. He was dismissed, and the following year two more ACMD scientists resigned over the decision to ban mephedrone, claiming it was driven by the media, not the evidence [xxviii]. Errors from Wikipedia and jokes on blogs were reported as facts in the media, including a teenager ripping his scrotum off [xxix], 180 schoolchildren off sick from one school, and a series of spurious deaths. Two deaths were reported in March, the ban went through in April, and toxicology reports, showing that they hadn’t taken mephedrone, came out in May [xxx].
One might hope that the government values expert advice over press hysteria, but the new Police Reform and Social Responsibility Bill removes the panel of experts from the ACMD. The Secretary of State may soon, without recourse to a single scientist, declare any substance to be a temporarily controlled drug, and the police may detain, search, seize and dispose of property accordingly [xxxi]. This extension of discretionary power represents a serious erosion of the Rule of Law.
Daimistas welcome scientific investigation of their sacrament, because when you have watched ninety year old women dancing and playing maraca for six hours straight through the Amazon night, and when you have noted the marked absence of either dementia or decrepitude in these seasoned psychonauts, it seems absurd to suggest that Daime damages one’s health at all. The UDV cites “ciencia” as one of its guiding principles in the service of spiritual evolution [xxxii], and members took part in the peer-reviewed Hoasca Project, studying the effects of ayahuasca. They scored above average in tests of memory, recall, attention and verbal ability [xxxiii], and were found to be more optimistic, gregarious and confident than sibling controls [xxxiv].
Science of a sort does inform European law. As of May this year, herbal medicines will be subject to the same tests that pharmaceuticals are. Whilst Glaxo-Smith-Klein can afford £100,000 of assays per product [xxxv], cottage industries and gardeners in the developing world are elbowed out of the marketplace at a stroke, and hundreds of medicines are set to disappear from the shops. The justification is that traditional medicine, despite being herbal, can still be harmful. Whilst that is absolutely true, properly-tested pharmaceuticals cause plenty of harm. Meta-analysis revealed that such drugs, properly prescribed at normal doses in American hospitals, caused “serious adverse reactions” in 6.7% of cases, and killed 106,000 people in 1994 [xxxvi].
Herbal medicines have, like ayahuasca, been prescribed for millennia by practitioners trained in the field, who study combinations and contraindications, who learn about dangers and how to avoid them. The field is complex, as are the plants, and scientific research can help unravel the mystery. Statistical analysis leaves little doubt that some medicines work, and biochemistry can supply models for modes of action. When the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of meadowsweet were linked to acetylsalicylic acid, it was synthesised and marketed as Aspirin, which has those useful properties, but also increases the likelihood of stomach ulcers, and low-doses were implicated in a third of cases of hospitalisation for vomiting blood [xxxvii]. Meadowsweet, by contrast, is a remedy for heartburn, as it also contains compounds which protect the stomach from the acid [xxxviii].
When considering a ban on a traditional Amazonian medicine, the Brazilian government footed the bill, but the considerably richer European Union is demanding that small companies pay impossible sums. This is not to contest specific claims that harm has been done, but to meet the standards set by a system which may be generally based on scientific principles, but has cultural, political, and industrial dimensions which cannot be ignored.
The debate over ayahuasca does not appear to be driven by robust scientific data, nor by any appeal to reason. It is not a religious issue either, because England is a secular country (and besides, drugs are not scheduled in the Bible.) Does big business control the strings, or is it nothing more than an assumption that drugs are bad, and that war must be waged against bad things? That is, of course, the position taken by The Sun, but hopefully we can expect a more sophisticated response from the government.
The question of legality in the UK remains open, and there is some cause for optimism. After thirty years, the ban on psychedelic research has been lifted, and various British Universities are testing therapeutic applications. Several top politicians, once freed from the muzzle of office, have spoken out against drug policy. Bob Ainsworth, the former Labour Home Office minister, argued for the legalisation of all drugs, describing the War on Drugs as “nothing short of a disaster” [xxxix]. Former Conservative cabinet minister Peter Lilley declared that “the current approach to drugs has been an expensive failure” and the Chief Constable of North Wales called for all drugs to be legalized [xl].
Perhaps the greatest cause for optimism in an age when the media carries so much clout resides with the power of the plants themselves. Many investigators discover this, whether they go looking for spiritual secrets, scientific data, political policy, or a journalistic scoop, and sometimes a journalist’s or anthropologist’s agenda changes very suddenly (because as a wise old man said, you only drink Daime once.) National Geographic Adventure’s most popular feature ever was a glowing report from a correspondent who overcame her long term depression during a trip to Peru [xli]. In one of the first internationally televised ayahuasca trips, Bruce Parry was confronted with the horrific magnitude of his own ego, and emerged humbler, wiser, and grateful for “one of the most profound experiences imaginable (or more correctly unimaginable as it is almost defined by its inexplicability)!” [xlii]. What other news-story is intrinsically ineffable? Even Rupert Murdoch’s FOX Channel painted a hugely positive picture, citing “many thousands of cases in which people have been healed of physical, mental and emotional disorders, and many curious cases of recovery from grave and even fatal disorders” [xliii].
Journalists are, by nature, open to sensational claims, and Daime often leaves people feeling sensational, brimming with health, inspiration, and trust in the benevolent forces at play in the universe. Politics and legal processes are sometimes inconsistent, but ayahuasca is consistent, responding according to how it is approached, returning terror or wonder in kind. Given half a chance, ayahuasca can quickly dismantle restrictive frames of reference, and in the space that opens up, such arbitrary concerns as legal code become completely immaterial.

---

Note: Most of the sources pertaining to legal cases can be found at – www.bialabate.net
[i] Guided by the Moon: Shamanism and the ritual use of Ayahuasca in the Santo Daime religion in Brazil – Edward MacRae (ebook at http://www.neip.info)

[ii] United Nations Drug Control Program Ayahuasca Policy Fax – January 17, 2001 http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law10.shtml

[iii] The Outdoors of Perception – The Independent Sunday, 8 September 1996

[iv] Now let us hallucinate – The Telegraph, November 20^th, 2005

[v] Santo Daime: the drug-fuelled religion – The Times, April 7^th, 2008

[vi] Green unpleasant land – guardian.co.uk, 28 November 2001

[vii] Mind-Busting Jungle Drug Hits UK – The Sun, October 7^th, 2010

[viii] O trabalho oculto e exotérico de Raimundo Irineu Serra – Débora de Carvalho Pereira (www.neip.info)

[ix] Testimony of Padrinho Luiz Mendes – http://www.mestreirineu.org/luiz.htm

[x] Testimony of Mario Maia – http://www.mestreirineu.org/mario.htm

[xi] Pers. comm. Saturnino de Brito de Nascimento

[xii] Uso religioso da Ayahuasca é Patrimônio da Cultura Brasileira – Francisco Hipólito de Araújo Neto, Jornal o Rio Branco, 5 May 2008

[xiii] Relatório Final das atividades desenvolvidas pelo Grupo de Trabalho designado pela Resolução/CONFEN n. 04, de 30 de julho de 1985 – 28 Agosto de 1987

[xiv] The Church of the Holy Light of the Queen vs. Michael B. Mukasey (CV 08.3095.PA) Amended Witness Statement of Jonathan Goldman

[xv] Gonzales vs. 0 Centro Espirita Beneficente União do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418 (2006)

[xvi] Religious Freedom and United States Drug Laws: Notes on the UDV-USA Legal Case – Matthew D. Meyer (www.neip.info)

[xvii] Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Article 9

[xviii] District Court of Amsterdam – Case number: 13/067455-99, 21 May 2001

[xix] District Court of Haarlem – Case number: 15/800013-09

[xx] Support letter for Santo Daime members addressed to the Spanish judge – Morelli, Don Mauro. (2000) – http://www.santodaime.it/Library/LAW/Spagna/morellivescovo00_portuguese.pdf

[xxi] Italian Santo Daime juridical case resume and comment – May 16th 2006 - http://www.bialabate.net/news/italian-santo-daime-juridical-case-resume-and-comment/index.html

[xxii] Court of Appeal of Paris, 10th Chamber, sec. B, File no. 04/01888. Judgment of 13 January 2005

[xxiii] The Matter of Brazilian Export Permission and Ceu do Montreal’s (Canada) Exemption Process for the Santo Daime Sacrament – letter to Bia Labate’s site, April 16th 2009

[xxiv] Resolução Nº 26 – CONAD – 31 de dezembro de 2002

[xxv] Ayahuasca–From Dangerous Drug to National Heritage: An Interview with Antonio A. Arantes – Labate, B. C and Goldstein, I, International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 28, 2009, pp. 53-64

[xxvi] Designation as Cultural Patrimony of the Nation extended to the Knowledge and Traditional Uses of Ayahuasca as practiced by native Amazon communities – National Directorial Resolution Number 836/INC (my translation)

[xxvii] Drug adviser Dr Polly Taylor’s full resignation letter - BBC News. 2010-03-29

[xxviii] A collapse in integrity of scientific advice in the UK – The Lancet 375

[xxix] Mass-information: mephedrone, myths, and the new generation of legal highs – Davey, Z et al. Drugs and Alcohol Today (2010) 10: 24

[xxx] Teenagers’ deaths ‘not caused by mephedrone’ – BBC website, 28 May 2010

[xxxi] Police Reform and Social Responsibility Bill, part 4,
http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/policereformandsocialresponsibility.html

[xxxii] Short Glossary of the Terms Used in the União do Vegetal - Beatriz Caiuby Labate, Matthew Meyer and Brian Anderson v 1.0 – Jul 30, 2009

[xxxiii] McKenna et al. Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65(3): 243–256.

[xxxiv] http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v04n4/04406hoa.html

[xxxv] Europe to ban hundreds of herbal remedies – The Independent 30 Dec, 2010

[xxxvi] Incidence of Adverse Drug Reactions in Hospitalized Patients: A Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies – Lazarou, J et al. JAMA 1998;279(15):1200-1205.

[xxxvii] The impact of cyclo-oxygenase II (COX-II) inhibitors on gastrointestinal (GIT) bleeding. Poster 30. Presented at the combined meeting of the Australian Rheumatology Association and the New Zealand Rheumatology Association. Christchurch, NZ: 28 May 2002. Sydney: Australian
Rheumatology Association, 2002.

[xxxviii] Encyclopedia of Herbs – Deni Brown (New York 2001) p. 214

[xxxix] Telegraph website, Friday 17 December 2010

[xl] Legalise all drugs: chief constable demands end to ‘immoral laws’ – The Independent

[xli] http://www.kirasalak.com/Ayahuasca.html

[xlii] http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/amazon/2008/01/mother_ayahuasca_versus_bruce.html

[xliii] http://www.foxnews.com/health/2011/01/05/ayahuasca-plant-healing-soul/#ixzz1AzCVuIzx

Ayahuasca

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This article is about the Ayahuasca brew. For information on the vine of the same name, see Banisteriopsis caapi.

Ayahuasca cooking in the Napo region of Ecuador

Ayahuasca (ayawaska pronounced [ajaˈwaska] in the Quechua language) is a brew of various psychoactive infusions or decoctions prepared with the Banisteriopsis caapi vine. It is usually mixed with the leaves of dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing species of shrubs from the genus Psychotria. The brew, first described academically in the early 1950s by Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes, who found it employed for divinatory and healing purposes by the native peoples of Amazonian Peru, is known by a number of different names (see below). It has been reported that some effects can be had from consuming the caapi vine alone, but that DMT-containing plants (such as Psychotria) remain inactive when drunk as a brew without a source of monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) such as B. caapi. How indigenous peoples discovered the synergistic properties of the plants used in the ayahuasca brew remains unclear. While many indigenous Amazonian people say they received the instructions directly from plants and plant spirits, researchers have devised a number of alternative theories to explain its discovery.^[1]

Peruvian Ayahuasca

Contents 1 Effects 2 Nomenclature 3 Chemistry 4 Preparation 5 Traditional brew 6 Usage 6.1 Non-traditional usage 7 History 8 Research 9 Legal status 9.1 Other legal issues 10 Documentary films about ayahuasca 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading

[edit] Effects

Ayahuasca cooking

People who have consumed ayahuasca report having massive spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe as well as deep insight as how to be the best person they possibly can.^[2] This is viewed by many as a spiritual awakening and what's often described as a rebirth.^[3] In addition it is often reported that individuals can gain access to higher spiritual dimensions and make contact with various spiritual or extra dimensional beings who can act as guides or healers.^[4] It's nearly always said that people experience profound positive changes in their life subsequent to consuming ayahuasca^[5] and it is often viewed as one of the most effective tools of enlightenment.^[6] However, during an ayahuasca experience, people sometimes report nausea, diarrhea, and cold flashes. Additionally, vomiting almost always follows ayahuasca ingestion; this purging is considered by many shamans and experienced users of ayahuasca to be an essential part of the experience as it represents the release of negative energy and emotions built up over the course of one's life.^[7] There are many reports of miraculous physical as well as emotional and spiritual healing resulting from the use of ayahuasca.^[8] There are no yet known long-term negative effects.^[9]

[edit] Nomenclature

Ayahuasca

Ayahuasca is known by many names throughout Northern South America and Brazil.
Ayahuasca is the Hispanicized spelling of a word in the Quechua languages, which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. Speakers of Quechua languages or of the Aymara language may prefer the spelling ayawaska. This word refers both to the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, and to the healing brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, aya means "spirit", and waska means "vine". The word ayahuasca has been variously translated as "vine of the soul", "vine of the dead", and "spirit vine".
In Brazil, the brew and the vine are informally called either caapi or cipó; the latter is the Portuguese word for liana (or woody climbing vine). In the União do Vegetal of Brazil, an organised spiritual tradition in which people drink ayahuasca, the brew is prepared exclusively from B. caapi and P. viridis. Adherents of União do Vegetal call this brew hoasca, daime, or santo daime.
In the Tucanoan languages it is called yagé or yajé (both pronounced [jaˈhe]).^[10] The Achuar people^[11] and Shuar people^[12] of Ecuador and Peru call it natem, whereas the Nahua peoples of Peru call it shori.^[13]

Molecular structure of harmine

Molecular structure of harmaline

Molecular structure of tetrahydroharmine

[edit] Chemistry

Harmala alkaloids are MAO-inhibiting beta-carbolines. The three most studied harmala alkaloids in the B. caapi vine are harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. Harmine and harmaline are selective and reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), while tetrahydroharmine is a weak serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI).^[14] This inhibition of MAO-A allows DMT to diffuse unmetabolized past the membranes in the stomach and small intestine, and eventually cross the blood–brain barrier (which, by itself, requires no MAO-A inhibition) to activate receptor sites in the brain. Without RIMAs or the MAOI of MAO-A, DMT would be oxidised (and thus rendered biologically inactive) by monoamine oxidase enzymes in the digestive tract.^[15]
Individual polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450-2D6 enzyme affect the ability of individuals to metabolize harmine.^[16] Some natural tolerance to habitual use of ayahuasca (roughly once weekly) may develop through upregulation of the serotonergic system.^[14][17] A phase 1 pharmacokinetic study on ayahuasca (as Hoasca) with 15 volunteers was conducted in 1993, during the Hoasca Project.^[14] A review of the Hoasca Project has been published.^[18]

[edit] Preparation

Sections of Banisteriopsis caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including Psychotria viridis (chacruna) or Diplopterys cabrerana (also known as chaliponga). The resulting brew contains the powerful psychedelic drug DMT and MAO inhibiting harmala alkaloids, which are necessary to make the DMT orally active.
Brews can also be made with no DMT-containing plants; Psychotria viridis being substituted by plants such as Justicia pectoralis, Brugmansia, or sacred tobacco, also known as Mapacho (Nicotiana rustica), or sometimes left out with no replacement. The potency of this brew varies radically from one batch to the next, both in potency and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the shaman or brewer, as well as other admixtures sometimes added and the intent of the ceremony. Natural variations in plant alkaloid content and profiles also affect the final concentration of alkaloids in the brew, and the physical act of cooking may also serve to modify the alkaloid profile of harmala alkaloids.^[19][20] Some shamans flash blanch the Psychotria viridis leaves by exposing the leaves to heat emanating from the cooking fire to modify the various harmaline alkaloids into more psychoactive forms.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Traditional brew

Ayahuasca being prepared in the Napo region of Ecuador

Freshly harvested caapi vine ready for preparation

Banisteriopsis caapi preparation

Beaten caapi ready for boiling

Caapi cooking over an open fire

Traditional ayahuasca brews are often made with Banisteriopsis caapi as an MAOI, although Dimethyltryptamine sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi, often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses.
DMT admixtures:

• Psychotria viridis (Chacruna)^[21] – leaves
• Diplopterys cabrerana (Chaliponga, Banisteriopsis rusbyana)^[21] – leaves
• Psychotria carthagenensis (Amyruca)^[21] – leaves
• Acacia maidenii (Maiden's Wattle), Acacia phlebophylla, and other Acacias, most commonly employed in Australia – bark
• Anadenanthera peregrina, A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa
• Mimosa hostilis (Jurema) – root bark – not traditionally employed with ayahuasca by any existing cultures, though likely it was in the past. Popular in Europe and North America.

MAOI:

• Harmal (Peganum harmala, Syrian Rue) – seeds
• Passion flower
• synthetic MAOIs

Other common admixtures:

• Justicia pectoralis
• Brugmansia (Toé)^[21]
• Nicotiana rustica^[21] (Mapacho, variety of tobacco)
• Ilex guayusa,^[21] a relative of yerba mate

Common admixtures with their associated ceremonial values and spirits:

• Ayahuma^[21] bark: Dead Head Tree. Provides protection and is used in healing susto (soul loss from spiritual fright or trauma). Head spirit is a headless giant.
• Capirona^[21] bark: Provides cleansing and protection. It is noted for its smooth bark, white flowers, and hard wood. Head spirits look Caucasian.
• Chullachaki Caspi^[21] bark (Brysonima christianeae): Provides cleansing to the physical body. Used to transcend physical body ailments. Head spirits look Caucasian.
• Lopuna Blanca bark: Provides protection. Head spirits take the form of giants.
• Punga Amarilla bark: Yellow Punga. Provides protection. Used to pull or draw out negative spirits or energies. Head spirit is the yellow anaconda.
• Remo Caspi^[21] bark: Oar Tree. Used to move dense or dark energies. Head spirit is a native warrior.
• Wyra (huaira) Caspi^[21] bark (Cedrelinga catanaeformis): Air Tree. Used to create purging, transcend gastro/intestinal ailments, calm the mind, and bring tranquility. Head spirit looks African.
• Shiwawaku bark: Brings purple medicine to the ceremony. Provides healing and protection.
• Camu camu Gigante: Head spirit comes in the form of a large dark skinned giant. He provides medicine and protection in the form of warding off dark and demonic spirits.
• Tamamuri: Head spirit looks like an old Asian warrior with a long white wispy beard. He carries a staff and manages thousands of spirits to protect the ceremony and send away energies that are purged from the participants.
• Uchu Sanango: Head of the sanango plants. Provides power, strength, and protection. Head doctor spirit is a grandfather with a long, gray-white beard.
• Huacapurana: Giant tree of the Amazon with very hard bark. Its head spirits come in the form of Amazonian giants and provide a strong grounding presence in the ceremony.

[edit] Usage

Ayahuasca

Ayahuasca is used largely as a religious sacrament. Users of ayahuasca in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism, as practiced among indigenous peoples like the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia.^[22] While non-native users know of the spiritual applications of ayahuasca, a less well-known traditional usage focuses on the medicinal properties of ayahuasca. When used for its medicinal purposes ayahuasca affects the human consciousness for less than six hours, beginning half an hour after consumption, and peaking after two hours. Ayahuasca also has cardiovascular effects, moderately increasing both heart rate and diastolic blood pressure. In some cases, individuals experience significant psychological stress during the experience. It is for this reason that extreme caution should be taken with those who may be at risk of heart disease.^[23]
The psychedelic effects of ayahuasca include visual and auditory stimulation, the mixing of sensory modalities, and psychological introspection that may lead to great elation, fear, or illumination. Its purgative properties are important (known as la purga or "the purge"). The intense vomiting and occasional diarrhea it induces can clear the body of worms and other tropical parasites,^[24] and harmala alkaloids themselves have been shown to be anthelmintic^[25] Thus, this action is twofold; a direct action on the parasites by these harmala alkaloids (particularly harmine in ayahuasca) works to kill the parasites, and parasites are expelled through the increased intestinal motility that is caused by these alkaloids.

Urarina shaman, 1988

Dietary taboos are often associated with the use of ayahuasca.^[26] In the rainforest, these tend towards the purification of one's self – abstaining from spicy and heavily-seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or during a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis. However, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A, in a reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Dietary restrictions are not used by the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal, suggesting the risk is much lower than perceived, and probably non-existent.^[26]
The name 'ayahuasca' specifically refers to a botanical decoction that contains Banisteriopsis caapi. A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. Thus, ayahuasqueros and most others working with the brew maintain that the B. caapi vine is the defining ingredient, and that this beverage is not ayahuasca unless B. caapi is in the brew. The vine is considered to be the "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper and guide to the otherworldly realms.
In some areas^[specify], it is even said that the chakruna or chaliponga admixtures are added only to make the brew taste sweeter^{[citation needed]}. This is a strong indicator of the often wildly divergent intentions and cultural differences between the native ayahuasca-using cultures and psychedelics enthusiasts in other countries.
In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogues are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant can be used as a substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chakruna. Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia.
A visitor who wishes to become a "dietero" or "dietera", that is, a male or female apprentice-shaman learning the way of the teacher plants, undergoes a rigorous initiation. This can involve spending up to a year or more in the jungle. This initiation challenges and trains the initiate through extreme circumstances involving a special diet and numerous different plant medicines to complement the ayahuasca, the lack of western food and conveniences, the harsh environmental conditions of heavy rains, storms, intense heat, insects, and venomous animals. The initiate is also tested for their unwavering commitment to ayahuasca and the shaman who oversees the training.

[edit] Non-traditional usage

Around the end of the 1990s, ayahuasca use spread to Europe. The first ayahuasca 'Churches' affiliated to the Brazilian Santo Daime were established in the Netherlands. A legal case was filed against two of the Church's leaders, Hans Bogers (one of the original founders of the Dutch Santo Daime community) and Geraldine Fijneman (the head of the Amsterdam Santo Daime community). Bogers and Fijneman were charged with distributing a scheduled substance (DMT); however, the prosecution was unable to prove that the use of ayahuasca by members of the Santo Daime constituted a sufficient threat to public health and order that it warranted denying their rights to religious freedom under ECHR Article 9. The 2001 verdict of the Amsterdam district court is an important precedent. Since then groups that are not affiliated to the Santo Daime have used ayahuasca, and a number of different 'styles' have been developed, such as the non-religious approach developed by Daniel Waterman in 2001,^[27] popularly termed Ayahuasca Open Style (AOS).^[28]
Due to the legal status of ayahuasca in much of the West^{[citation needed]}, those who have been exploring its therapeutic potential are unable to do so openly. The non-religious therapeutic use of ayahuasca is not protected by covenants on religious freedom.

[edit] History

In the 16th century, Christian missionaries from Spain and Portugal first encountered indigenous peoples using ayahuasca in South America; their earliest reports described it as the work of the devil.^[29] In the 20th century, the active chemical constituent of B. caapi was named telepathine, but it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and was given the name harmaline. Beat writer William Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and sought out yagé in the early 1950s while traveling through South America in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters). Ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations. Dennis McKenna later studied the pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which became the subject of his master's thesis.
In Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous of them being Santo Daime and the União do Vegetal (or UDV), usually in an animistic context that may be shamanistic or, more often (as with Santo Daime and the UDV), integrated with Christianity. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world. Similarly, the US and Europe have started to see new religious groups develop in relation to increased ayahuasca use.^[30] Some Westerners have teamed up with shamans in the Amazon rainforest regions, forming ayahuasca healing retreats that claim to be able to cure mental and physical illness and allow communication with the spirit world. Some reports and scientific studies affirm that ritualized use of ayahuasca may improve mental and physical health.^[31]
In recent years, the tea has been popularized by Wade Davis (The Serpent and The Rainbow), English novelist Martin Goodman in I Was Carlos Castaneda, Chilean novelist Isabel Allende,^[32] writer Kira Salak,^[33][34] author Jeremy Narby (The Cosmic Serpent), author Jay Griffiths ("Wild: An Elemental Journey"), and radio personality Robin Quivers.^[35]
In 2008, psychology professor Benny Shanon published a controversial hypothesis that a brew analogous to Ayahuasca was heavily connected to early Judaism, and that the effects of this brew were responsible for some of the most significant events of Moses' life, including his vision of the burning bush.^[36]

[edit] Research

Charles Grob directed the first major study of the effects of ayahuasca on humans with the Hoasca Project in 1993. The project studied members of the União do Vegetal (UDV) church in Brazil who use hoasca as a sacrament.
The Institute of Medical Psychology at the University Hospital in Heidelberg, Germany has set up a Research Department Ayahuasca / Santo Daime,^[37] which in May 2008 held a 3-day conference under the title The globalization of Ayahuasca – An Amazonian psychoactive and its users.^[38] There are also the investigations of the human pharmacology of ayahuasca done by Jordi Riba^{[15][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47]} and the work of Rafael G. dos Santos.^{[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55]}

[edit] Legal status

Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:^[56]

The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principles, mescaline, DMT and psilocin.

A fax from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board to the Netherlands Ministry of Public Health sent in 2001 goes on to state that "Consequently, preparations (e.g.decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca, are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention."^[57]
The legal status in the United States of DMT-containing plants is somewhat questionable. Ayahuasca plants and preparations are legal, as they contain no scheduled chemicals. However, brews made using DMT containing plants are illegal since DMT is a Schedule I drug. That said, some people are challenging this, using arguments similar to those used by peyotist religious sects, such as the Native American Church. A court case allowing the União do Vegetal to import and use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies pursuant to the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. In a similar case an Ashland, Oregon based Santo Daime church sued for their right to import and consume ayahuasca tea. In March 2009, U.S. District Court Judge Panner ruled in favor of the Santo Daime, acknowledging its protection from prosecution under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.^[58]
Religious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses.^[59]
In France, Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled.^[60] Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared stupéfiants, or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess.^[61]

[edit] Other legal issues

Ayahuasca has also stirred debate regarding intellectual property protection of traditional knowledge. In 1986 the US Patent and Trademarks Office allowed the granting of a patent on the ayahuasca vine B. Caapi. It allowed this patent based on the assumption that ayahuasca's properties had not been previously described in writing. Several public interest groups, including the Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA) and the Coalition for Amazonian Peoples and Their Environment (Amazon Coalition) objected. In 1999 they brought a legal challenge to this patent which had granted a private US citizen "ownership" of the knowledge of a plant that is well-known and sacred to many indigenous peoples of the Amazon, and used by them in religious and healing ceremonies.^[62] Later that year the PTO issued a decision rejecting the patent, on the basis that the petitioners' arguments that the plant was not "distinctive or novel" were valid. However, the decision did not acknowledge the argument that the plant's religious or cultural values prohibited a patent. In 2001, after an appeal by the patent holder, the US Patent Office reinstated the patent. The law at the time did not allow a third party such as COICA to participate in that part of the reexamination process. The patent, held by US entrepreneur Loren Miller, expired in 2003.^[63]

[edit] Documentary films about ayahuasca

• Shamans of the Amazon (2001), directed by Dean Jefferys.
• "Jungle Trip" (2001), directed by Gavin Searle. In this episode of To the Ends of the Earth, an English amateur botanist seeks personal transformation from the indigenous peoples of the Amazon.
• Night of the Liana (2002), directed by Glenn Switkes.
• L'Ayahuasca, le serpent et moi (2003), directed by Armand Bernardi.
• D'autres mondes (2004), directed by Jan Kounen. Canadian anthropologist Jeremy Narby, Shipibo curandero Guillermo Arévalo, and others talk about the value and the mystery of ayahuasca.
• Sacha Runa: Spirits of the Rainforest (2005), directed by Sean Adair and Miguel Kavlin.
• The Man Who Drank the Universe (2005), directed by Gary Reich and Alistair Appleton. English television-presenter Alistair Appleton travels to Brazil to try ayahuasca.
• An episode of Extreme Celebrity Detox (2005) featured British celebrities Mina Anwar, Jo Guest and Tony Wilson visiting the Amazon to partake in the ceremony.
• Die Letzte Droge (2006), directed by Stefan Kluge.
• Woven Songs of the Amazon (2006), directed by Anna Stevens.
• Heaven Earth (2008), directed by Rudolf Amaral and Harald Scherz. A look at the ayahuasqueros of Peru, and the people whom they help.
• "Amazonas" (2009), directed by Tuomas Milonoff. In this, the series-three premiere of Madventures, Riku Rantala and Tuomas Milonoff journey to the Amazon to drink ayahuasca with a shaman.
• Ayahuasca Diary (2009), directed by Christian Moran.
• Metamorphosis (2009), directed by Keith Aronowitz. Hamilton Souther, an American man from California, trains with Don Alberto to learn the ways of the ayahuasquero.
• Vine of the Soul: Encounters with Ayahuasca (2010), directed by Richard Meech.
• DMT: The Spirit Molecule (2010), Director: Mitch Schultz. An investigation into the long-obscured mystery of dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a molecule found in nearly every living organism and considered the most potent psychedelic on Earth.
• Stepping into the Fire (2011), directed by Ross Evison and Roberto Velez. Roberto Velez, an affluent American businessman, feels that his professional life and values are harming his family. His ayahuasca experience inspires him to build a shamanic retreat center in the Peruvian Amazon, and catalyzes a shift in his family members' lives.

[edit] See also

• Icaro
• Mariri
• Psychedelic experience
• Shamanism

[edit] Notes

1. ^ "Ayahuasca.com – Overviews Shamanism – On The Origin of Ayahuasca". http://www.ayahuasca.com/ayahuasca-overviews/on-the-origins-of-ayahuasca/. Retrieved August, 2010.
2. ^ Gorman, Peter (2010). Ayahuasca in My Blood: 25 Years of Medicine Dreaming. ISBN 1452882908.
3. ^ Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms. pp. 67–70.
4. ^ Metzer, Ralph (1999). Ayahuasca: Human Consciousness and the Spirits of Nature. pp. 46–55.
5. ^ Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms. pp. 25–28.
6. ^ Metzer, Ralph (1999). Ayahuasca: Human Consciousness and the Spirits of Nature. pp. 22–23.
7. ^ Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms. pp. 81–85.
8. ^ Campos, Don Jose (2011). The Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms.
9. ^ Schultz, Mitch. "DMT: The Spirit Molecule".
10. ^ This term was popularized in English in the 1960s by the beat generation writers William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg in The Yage Letters. The letters were originally written in the 1950s.
11. ^ Descola, Philippe (1996). In the Society of Nature: A Native Ecology in Amazonia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–100, 163. ISBN 978-0-521-57467-9.
12. ^ Incayawar, Mario; Lise Bouchard, Ronald Wintrob, Goffredo Bartocci (2009). Psychiatrists and Traditional Healers: Unwitting Partners in Global Mental Health. Wiley. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-470-51683-6.
13. ^ Siskind, Janet (1973). To Hunt in the Morning. Oxford University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-19-501891-5.
14. ^ ^{a b c} Callaway JC, McKenna DJ, Grob CS, Brito GS, Raymon LP, Poland RE, Andrade EN, Andrade EO (1999). "Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans". Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65 (3): 243–256. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00168-8. PMID 10404423.
15. ^ ^{a b} RIBA, J. Human Pharmacology of Ayahuasca. Doctoral Thesis: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2003.
16. ^ Callaway, J. C. (June 2005). "Fast and Slow Metabolizers of Hoasca". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury Pub. in assoc. w. Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic) 37 (2): 157–61. doi:10.1080/02791072.2005.10399797. ISSN 0279-1072. OCLC 7565359. PMID 16149329. http://www.mimosahostilis.com/mimosa-hostilis-info/Fast%20and%20Slow%20Metabolizers%20of%20Hoasca%20-%20Callaway.pdf.
17. ^ Callaway JC, Airaksinen MM, McKenna DJ, Brito GS, Grob CS (November 1994). "Platelet serotonin uptake sites increased in drinkers of ayahuasca". Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 116 (3): 385–7. doi:10.1007/BF02245347. PMID 7892432.
18. ^ McKenna DJ, Callaway JC, Grob CS (1998). "The scientific investigation of ayahuasca: A review of past and current research". The Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research 1: 65–77. http://www.scribd.com/doc/3937611/The-Scientific-Investigation-of-Ayahuasca-A-Review-of-Past-and-Current-Research-.
19. ^ Callaway, J. C. (June 2005). "Various Alkaloid Profiles in Decoctions of Banisteriopsis Caapi". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury Pub. in assoc. w. Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic) 37 (2): 151–5. doi:10.1080/02791072.2005.10399796. ISSN 0279-1072. OCLC 7565359. PMID 16149328. http://catbull.com/alamut/Bibliothek/various%20alkaloid%20profiles%20in%20aya%20decoction.pdf.
20. ^ Callaway, J. C.; Brito, Glacus S.; Neves, Edison S. (June 2005). "Phytochemical Analyses of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury Pub. in assoc. w. Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic) 37 (2): 145–50. doi:10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795. ISSN 0279-1072. OCLC 7565359. PMID 16149327.
21. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Ratsch 2005, pp. 704–708
22. ^ Dean, Bartholomew (2009). Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5. http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07.
23. ^ Tafur, M.D., Dr. Joseph. "Ayahuasca". http://www.nihuerao.com/eng/ayawaska.htm.
24. ^ Andritzky, Walter (January–March 1989). "Sociopsychotherapeutic Functions of Ayahuasca Healing in Amazonia". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury Pub. in assoc. w. Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic) 21 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1080/02791072.1989.10472145. ISSN 0279-1072. OCLC 7565359. PMID 2656954.
25. ^ Hassan, I. (1967). "Some folk uses of Peganum harmala in India and Pakistan". Economic Botany 21 (3): 384. doi:10.1007/BF02860378.
26. ^ ^{a b} Ott, J. (1994). Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangaean Entheogens. Kennewick, WA: Natural Books. ISBN 978-0-9614234-4-5.
27. ^ Who We Are at a-keys.nl
28. ^ Introduction to Ayahuasca at a-keys.nl
29. ^ Reichel-Dolmatoff 1975, p. 48 as cited in Soibelman 1995, p. 14.
30. ^ Labate, B.C.; Rose, I.S. & Santos, R.G. (2009). Ayahuasca Religions: a comprehensive bibliography and critical essays. Santa Cruz: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies – MAPS. ISBN 978-0-9798622-1-2.
31. ^ See research by Doctor John Halpern in New Scientist
32. ^ Elsworth, Catherine (2008-03-21). "Isabel Allende: kith and tell". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/donotmigrate/3672060/Isabel-Allende-kith-and-tell.html. Retrieved 2010-04-26.
33. ^ Salak, Kira. "Hell And Back". http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
34. ^ Salak, Kira. "Ayahuasca Healing in Peru". http://www.kirasalak.com/Ayahuasca.html. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
35. ^ stern show blog, podcast and videos, wcqj.com, http://www.wcqj.com/, retrieved 2012-01-14
36. ^ Shanon, Benny (March 2008). "Biblical Entheogens: a Speculative Hypothesis". Time and Mind (Berg) 1 (1): 51–74. doi:10.2752/175169608783489116. ISSN 1751-6978. http://catbull.com/alamut/Bibliothek/7616docid6743.pdf. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
37. ^ 'Research Department Ayahuasca / Santo Daime' at the University Hospital in Heidelberg, Germany, Klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de, http://www.klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de/Forschungsbereich-Ayahuasca-Santo-Daime.5828.0.html, retrieved 2012-01-14
38. ^ Conference schedule "The globalization of Ayahuasca", Heidelberg, Germany: Ritualdynamik.de, 2008, May, http://www.ritualdynamik.de/ritualdynamik/archiv/2Archiv-2008_pdfs/Ayahuasca_Conference_Schedule_May_2008.pdf, retrieved 2012-01-14
39. ^ Riba, Jordi; Barbanoj, Manel J. (June 2005). "Bringing Ayahuasca to the Clinical Research Laboratory". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury Pub. in assoc. w. Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic) 37 (2): 219–30. doi:10.1080/02791072.2005.10399804. ISSN 0279-1072. OCLC 7565359. PMID 16149336. http://catbull.com/alamut/Bibliothek/Bringing_Ayahuasca_to_clinical_laboratory.pdf.
40. ^ Riba, J. & Barbanoj, M.J. Ayahuasca (2006). Peris, J.C., Zurián, J.C., Martínez, G.C. & Valladolid, G.R.. ed. Tratado SET de Transtornos Adictivos. Madrid: Ed. Médica Panamericana. pp. 321–324. ISBN 978-84-7903-164-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=bnV6Tx6hD5cC.
41. ^ Riba J, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Strassman RJ, Barbanoj MJ (May 2001). "Psychometric assessment of the Hallucinogen Rating Scale". Drug Alcohol Depend 62 (3): 215–23. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00175-7. PMID 11295326.
42. ^ Riba J, Rodríguez-Fornells A, Urbano G, et al. (February 2001). "Subjective effects and tolerability of the South American psychoactive beverage Ayahuasca in healthy volunteers". Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 154 (1): 85–95. doi:10.1007/s002130000606. PMID 11292011.
43. ^ Riba J, Anderer P, Morte A, et al. (June 2002). "Topographic pharmaco-EEG mapping of the effects of the South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca in healthy volunteers". Br J Clin Pharmacol 53 (6): 613–28. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2125.2002.01609.x. PMC 1874340. PMID 12047486. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1874340/.
44. ^ Riba, J., Rodriguez–Fornells, A., & Barbanoj, M.j. (2002). "Effects of ayahuasca sensory and sensorimotor gating in humans as measured by P50 suppression and prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex, respectively.". Psychopharmacology (Berl) 165 (1): 18–28. doi:10.1007/s00213-002-1237-5.
45. ^ Riba J, Valle M, Urbano G, Yritia M, Morte A, Barbanoj MJ (July 2003). "Human pharmacology of ayahuasca: subjective and cardiovascular effects, monoamine metabolite excretion, and pharmacokinetics". J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 306 (1): 73–83. doi:10.1124/jpet.103.049882. PMID 12660312.
46. ^ Riba J, Anderer P, Jané F, Saletu B, Barbanoj MJ (2004). "Effects of the South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca on regional brain electrical activity in humans: a functional neuroimaging study using low-resolution electromagnetic tomography". Neuropsychobiology 50 (1): 89–101. doi:10.1159/000077946. PMID 15179026.
47. ^ Riba J, Romero S, Grasa E, Mena E, Carrió I, Barbanoj MJ (May 2006). "Increased frontal and paralimbic activation following ayahuasca, the pan-Amazonian inebriant". Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 186 (1): 93–8. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0358-7. PMID 16575552.
48. ^ Santos, R.G., Moraes, C.C. & Holanda, A. (2006). "Ayahuasca e redução do uso abusivo de psicoativos: eficácia terapêutica?". Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa 22 (3): 363–370. doi:10.1590/S0102-37722006000300014. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-37722006000300014&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=pt.
49. ^ SANTOS, R.G. (2007). "AYAHUASCA: Neuroquímica e Farmacologia.". SMAD – Revista Eletrônica Saúde Mental Álcool e Drogas 3 (1). http://pepsic.bvs-psi.org.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1806-69762007000100007&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=pt.
50. ^ Santos RG, Landeira-Fernandez J, Strassman RJ, Motta V, Cruz AP (July 2007). "Effects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in Santo Daime members" (PDF). J Ethnopharmacol 112 (3): 507–13. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012. PMID 17532158. http://www.maps.org/w3pb/new/2007/2007_Santos_22932_1.pdf.
51. ^ Santos, R.G. & Strassman, R.J. (3 December 2008). "Ayahuasca and Psychosis (eLetter)". British Journal of Psychiatry. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/letters/?first-index=561&hits=80#bjrcpsych_el_22556.
52. ^ SANTOS, R.G. (2010). "The pharmacology of ayahuasca: a review" (PDF). Brasília Médica 47 (2): 188–195. http://www.ambr.com.br/rb/arquivos/12.pdf.
53. ^ SANTOS, R.G. (2010). "Toxicity of chronic ayahuasca administration to the pregnant rat: how relevant it is regarding the human, ritual use of ayahuasca?" (PDF). Birth Defects Research Part B: Developmental and Reproductive Toxicology 89 (6): 533–535. doi:10.1002/bdrb.20272. http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/wiley/toxicity-of-chronic-ayahuasca-administration-to-the-pregnant-rat-how-iNmvzZml0a?key=wiley.
54. ^ SANTOS, R.G. (ed.). "The Ethnopharmacology of Ayahuasca". Trivandrum: Transworld Research Network. 2011. http://www.trnres.com/ebookcontents.php?id=93
55. ^ Santos RG, Valle M, Bouso JC, Nomdedéu JF, Rodriguez-Espinosa J, McIlhenny EH, Barker SA, Barbanoj MJ, Riba J (December 2011). "Autonomic, neuroendocrine and immunological effects of Ayahuasca. A comparative study with d-amphetamine" (PDF). J Clin Psychopharmacol 31 (6): 217–26. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e31823607f6. PMID 22005052. http://iceers.org/fileadmin/ICEERS/content/publications/JClinPsychopharmacol.pdf.
56. ^ DMT – UN report<!- RoBot generated title (T-1000) ->, MAPS, 1971-02-21, http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html, retrieved 2012-01-14
57. ^ Erowid Ayahuasca Vault : Law : UNDCP's Ayahuasca Fax, Erowid.org, 2001-01-17, http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law10.shtml, retrieved 2012-01-14
58. ^ (PDF) Ruling by District Court Judge Panner in Santo Daime case in Oregon, http://csp.org/society/docs/SantoDaimeAshland20090318.pdf, retrieved 2012-01-14
59. ^ More on the legal status of ayahuasca can be found in the Erowid vault on the legality of ayahuasca.
60. ^ Cour d'appel de Paris, 10ème chambre, section B, dossier n° 04/01888. Arrêt du 13 janvier 2005 [Court of Appeal of Paris, 10th Chamber, Section B, File No. 04/01888. Judgement of 13 January 2005]. PDF of this document may be obtained from Ayahuasca – Santo Daime Library.
61. ^ JO, 2005-05-03. Arrêté du 20 avril 2005 modifiant l'arrêté du 22 février 1990 fixant la liste des substances classées comme stupéfiants (PDF) [Decree of 20 April 2005 amending the decree of 22 February 1990 establishing the list of substances scheduled as narcotics].
62. ^ CIEL Biodiversity Program Accomplishments, Ciel.org, http://www.ciel.org/Bio/Biodiversity_Accomplishments.html, retrieved 2012-01-14
63. ^ "The Ayahuasca Patent Case". Our Programs: Biodiversity. The Centre for International Environmental Law. http://www.ciel.org/Bio/ayahuascapatentcase.html. Retrieved 18 December 2011.

[edit] References

• Bartholomew, Dean Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8130-3378-5 [1]
• Burroughs, William S. and Allen Ginsberg. The Yage Letters. San Francisco: City Lights, 1963. ISBN 0-87286-004-3
• Dobkin De Rios, Marlene. Visionary Vine: Hallucinogenic Healing in the Peruvian Amazon, (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1984. ISBN 0-88133-093-0
• Dobkin de Rios, Marlene & Roger Rumrrill. A Hallucinogenic Tea, Laced with Controversy: Ayahuasca in the Amazon and the United States. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008. ISBN 978-0-313-34542-5
• Fraser, Sylvia. The Green Labyrinth: Exploring the Mysteries of the Amazon. Toronto: Thomas Allen, 2003. ISBN 0-88762-123-6.
• Hancock, Graham, Supernatural: Meetings with the Ancient Teachers of Mankind. London: Century, 2005. ISBN 1-84413-681-7 [2]
• Heaven, Ross and Howard G. Charing. Plant Spirit Shamanism: Traditional Techniques for Healing the Soul. Rochester, Vt.: Destiny, 2006. ISBN 1-59477-118-9
• Lamb, Bruce F. Rio Tigre and Beyond: The Amazon Jungle Medicine of Manuel Córdova. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1985. ISBN 0-938190-59-8
• Langdon, E. Jean Matteson & Gerhard Baer, eds. Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8263-1345-0
• Luna, Luis Eduardo. Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1986. ISBN 91-22-00819-5
• Luna, Luis Eduardo & Pablo Amaringo. Ayahuasca Visions: The Religious Iconography of A Peruvian Shaman. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1999. ISBN 1-55643-311-5
• Luna, Luis Eduardo & Stephen F. White, eds. Ayahuasca Reader: Encounters with the Amazon's Sacred Vine. Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic, 2000. ISBN 0-907791-32-8
• McKenna, Terence. Food of the Gods: A Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution.
• Metzner, Ralph, ed. Ayahuasca: Hallucinogens, Consciousness, and the Spirit of Nature. New York: Thunder's Mouth, 1999. ISBN 1-56025-160-3
• Metzner, Ralph (Editor). Sacred Vine of Spirits: Ayahuasca, (2nd ed.) Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2006. ISBN 1-59477-053-0, ISBN 978-1-59477-053-1
• Narby, Jeremy. The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998. ISBN 0-87477-911-1
• O'Rourke, P. J., All the Trouble in the World. New York: The Atlantic Monthly, 1994. ISBN 0-87113-611-2
• Ott, Jonathan. Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens. Kennewick, Wash.: Natural Products, 1994. ISBN 0-9614234-5-5
• Ott, J. Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History, (2nd ed.)(Paperback). Kennewick, Wash.: Natural Products, 1993. ISBN 0-9614234-9-8. ISBN 978-0-9614234-9-0
• Ott, Jonathan (April–June 1999). "Pharmahuasca: Human Pharmacology of Oral DMT Plus Harmine". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury Pub. in assoc. w. Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic) 31 (2): 171–7. doi:10.1080/02791072.1999.10471741. ISSN 0279-1072. OCLC 7565359. PMID 10438001.
• Perkins, John. The World Is As You Dream It: Shamanic Teachings from the Amazon and Andes. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1994. ISBN 0-89281-459-4 [3]
• Pinchbeck, Daniel. Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism. New York: Broadway, 2002. ISBN 0-7679-0743-4 [4]
• Polari de Alverga, Alex. Forest of Visions: Ayahuasca, Amazonian Spirituality, and the Santo Daime Tradition. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1999. ISBN 0-89281-716-X
• Rätsch, Christian. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2005. ISBN 978-0-89281-978-2
• Rätsch, Christian, Claudia Müller-Ebeling & Arno Adelaars. Ayahuasca. Rituale, Zaubertränke und visionäre Kunst aus Amazonien, Aarau, Switzerland: AT, 2006. ISBN 978-3-03800-270-3
• Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-87722-038-7
• Schultes, Richard Evans & Robert F. Raffauf. Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia. Oracle, AZ: Synergetic, 1992. ISBN 0-907791-24-7
• Shannon, Benny. The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-925293-9
• Stafford, Peter G. Heavenly Highs: Ayahuasca, Kava-Kava, Dmt, and Other Plants of the Gods. Berkeley: Ronin, 2004. ISBN 1-57951-069-8
• Sting. Broken Music. New York, NY: Bantam Dell, 2003. ISBN 978-0-440-24115-7
• Strassman, Rick. DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2001. ISBN 0-89281-927-8
• Taussig, Michael. Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. ISBN 0-226-79012-6
• Wilcox, Joan Parisi. Ayahuasca: The Visionary and Healing Powers of the Vine of the Soul. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2003. ISBN 0-89281-131-5

[edit] Further reading

• Rubenstein, Steven L. "On the Importance of Visions among the Amazonian Shuar", Current Anthropology, Vol. 53, No. 1 (2012), pp. 39–79.

v t e Traditional medicine East Asian Traditional Chinese Japanese Kampo Traditional Korean Traditional Mongolian Traditional Tibetan South & Southeast Asian Ayurveda Traditional Sri Lankan Jamu Siddha Traditional Thai Unani Irani Mediterranean & Near Eastern Byzantine Ancient Egyptian Ancient Greek Medieval Islamic Ancient Iranian Ancient Roman African Inyanga Muti Nganga Sangoma Yoruba Iboga Americas Ayahuasca Aztec Traditional Brazilian Maya Curandero Australasia & Oceania Bush medicine General Alternative medicine History of alternative medicine Health care Herbalism Naturopathy Prehistoric medicine Western Medieval Medicinal plant conservation Humorism (phlegm, yellow bile, black bile, blood)

v t e Hallucinogens Psychedelics 5-HT2AR agonists Lysergamides: AL-LAD ALD-52 BU-LAD CYP-LAD DAM-57 Diallyllysergamide Ergometrine ETH-LAD LAE-32 LSA LSD LSH LPD-824 LSM-775 Lysergic acid 2-butyl amide Lysergic acid 2,4-dimethylazetidide Lysergic acid 3-pentyl amide Methylergometrine Methylisopropyllysergamide Methysergide MLD-41 PARGY-LAD PRO-LAD Phenethylamines: Aleph 2C-B 2C-B-Dragonfly 2C-B-FLY 2C-C-FLY 2C-D-FLY 2C-E-FLY 2C-I-FLY 2CBFly-NBOMe 2C-T-7-FLY 2C-C 2C-C-NBOMe 2C-CN-NBOMe 2C-D 2CD-5EtO 2C-D-NBOMe 2C-E 2C-EF 2C-E-NBOMe 2C-F 2C-F-NBOMe 2C-G 2C-G-NBOMe 2C-H-NBOMe 2C-I 2C-N 2C-N-NBOMe 2C-O 2C-O-4 2C-P 2C-T 2C-T-2 2C-T-4 2C-T-4-NBOMe 2C-T-7 2C-T-7-NBOH 2C-T-8 2C-T-9 2C-T-13 2C-T-15 2C-T-17 2C-T-21 2C-TFM 2C-TFM-NBOMe 2C-YN 2CBCB-NBOMe 25B-NBOMe 25I-NBMD 25I-NBOH 25I-NBOMe 3C-AL 3C-E 3C-P 5-APB 5-APDB 6-APB 6-APDB Br-DFLY DESOXY DMMDA DMMDA-2 DOB DOB-FLY DOM-FLY DOC DOEF DOET DOF DOI DOM DON DOPR DOTFM Escaline Ganesha HOT-2 HOT-7 HOT-17 IAP Isoproscaline Jimscaline Lophophine MDA MDEA MDMA MMA MMDA MMDA-2 MMDA-3a MMDMA Macromerine Mescaline Methallylescaline NBOMe-mescaline Proscaline TCB-2 TFMFly TMA Piperazines: pFPP TMFPP Tryptamines: 1-Methyl-5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine 2,N,N-TMT 4,N,N-TMT 4-HO-5-MeO-DMT 4-Acetoxy-DET 4-Acetoxy-DIPT 4-Acetoxy-DMT 4-Acetoxy-DPT 4-Acetoxy-MiPT 4-HO-DPT 4-HO-MET 4-Propionyloxy-DMT 4-HO-MPMI 5-Me-MIPT 5-N,N-TMT 5-AcO-DMT 5-MeO-2,N,N-TMT 5-MeO-4,N,N-TMT 5-MeO-α,N,N-TMT 5-MeO-α-ET 5-MeO-α-MT 5-MeO-DALT 5-MeO-DET 5-MeO-DIPT 5-MeO-DMT 5-MeO-DPT 5-MeO-EiPT 5-MeO-MET 5-MeO-MIPT 5-MeO-MPMI 7,N,N-TMT α,N,N-TMT α-ET α-MT AL-37350A Baeocystin Bufotenin DALT DBT DCPT DET DIPT DMT DPT EiPT Ethocin Ethocybin Iprocin MET Miprocin MIPT Norbaeocystin PiPT Psilocin Psilocybin Others: AL-38022A Elemicin Ibogaine Myristicin Noribogaine Voacangine Dissociatives NMDAR antagonists Adamantanes: Amantadine Memantine Rimantadine Arylcyclohexylamines: 3-MeO-PCP 4-MeO-PCP Dieticyclidine Esketamine Eticyclidine Gacyclidine Ketamine Methoxetamine Methoxyketamine Neramexane Phencyclidine PCPr Rolicyclidine Tenocyclidine Tiletamine Morphinans: Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Racemethorphan Racemorphan Others: 2-MDP 8A-PDHQ Aptiganel Dexoxadrol Dizocilpine Etoxadrol Ibogaine Midafotel NEFA Nitrous oxide Noribogaine Perzinfotel Remacemide Selfotel Xenon Deliriants mAChR antagonists 3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate Atropine BRN-1484501 Benactyzine Benzatropine Benzydamine Biperiden Brompheniramine CAR-226,086 CAR-301,060 CAR-302,196 CAR-302,282 CAR-302,368 CAR-302,537 CAR-302,668 Chlorpheniramine Chloropyramine Clemastine CS-27349 Cyclizine Cyproheptadine Dicyclomine Dimenhydrinate Diphenhydramine Ditran Doxylamine EA-3167 EA-3443 EA-3580 EA-3834 Flavoxate Hydroxyzine Hyoscyamine Meclizine N-Ethyl-3-piperidyl benzilate N-Methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate Pyrilamine Orphenadrine Oxybutynin Pheniramine Phenyltoloxamine Procyclidine Promethazine Scopolamine Tolterodine Trihexyphenidyl Tripelennamine Triprolidine WIN-2299 Miscellaneous Cannabinoids CB1R agonists Cannabinol CP-47,497 CP-55,244 CP-55,940 DMHP HU-210 JWH-018 JWH-030 JWH-073 JWH-081 JWH-200 JWH-250 Nabilone Nabitan Nantradol Parahexyl THC (Dronabinol) WIN-55,212-2 D2R agonists Apomorphine Bromocriptine Cabergoline Lisuride Memantine Pergolide Piribedil Pramipexole Ropinirole Rotigotine * Also indirect D2 agonists such as dopamine reuptake inhibitors (cocaine, methylphenidate), releasing agents (amphetamine, methamphetamine), and precursors (levodopa). GABAAR agonists Eszopiclone Gaboxadol Ibotenic acid Muscimol Zaleplon Zolpidem Zopiclone Inhalants Mixed MOA Aliphatic hydrocarbons Butane Propane Gasoline Kerosene Aromatic hydrocarbons Toluene Ethers Diethyl ether Enflurane Haloalkanes Chloroform Chlorofluorocarbons κOR agonists 2-EMSB 2-MMSB Alazocine Bremazocine Butorphanol Cyclazocine Cyprenorphine Dextrallorphan Dezocine Enadoline Herkinorin HZ-2 Ibogaine Ketazocine LPK-26 Metazocine Nalbuphine Nalorphine Noribogaine Pentazocine Phenazocine Salvinorin A Spiradoline Tifluadom U-50,488 U-69,593 σR agonists Dextrallorphan Dextromethorphan Dextrorphan Noscapine Others Efavirenz Glaucine Isoaminile

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